THE OHIO VALLEY-GREAT LAKES ETHNOHISTORY
ARCHIVES: THE MIAMI COLLECTION
It is noted that the following work from the Miami Archives should be read and
considered within the historical context in which it was composed and printed.
The opinions expressed and the language used do not reflect the opinions or
standards of the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, but are, rather,
indicative of thought in that historical moment during which the document was
published.
Manners and Customs
of the Savage Tribes
|
In: Stevens, Sylvester K., Donald H. Kent, and Emma Edith Woods, eds., J. C. B., Travels in New France, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Public Instruction, The Pennsylvania Historical Commission, Harrisburg, 1941, pp. 138-150. |
Manners and Customs of the Savage Tribes.
These travels have made mention, in passing, of the way savages engage in war, their alliances, preparations for war, dances, and war feasts; of the precautions taken when they have decided on war; of their way of fighting, surprising their enemies and scalping them; of the treatment of prisoners, either adopting, enslaving or burning them; and, also, how they travel in winter, and of their taste for liquor.
It now remains for me to tell about their physique, character and swiftness in running; about their way of living, clothing, marriage, women, and childbirth; about their children, homes, and councils; about their weapons, games, funerals, tombs, and mourning, about the way they designate the months and moons; about the four mother tongues of those tribes; and, lastly, about their gods.
THEIR PHYSIQUE
Generally speaking, the savage peoples do not keep any hair on their bodies. It is not easy to say why they keep it only on the back of the head. There it is cut short, leaving one of two long strands, dyed black, which they braid and let hag to their shoulders. There is none on the rest of the body, for they are careful to pluck it. Some even pull out the eyelashes and eyebrows, as well as any down on the body. It stops growing in a few days for no known reason. Some old men, however, have some hair on the chin. They claim that the lack of hair results from the abundance of their blood, which is purer because of their simple diet, and which produces fewer excess substances.
There is little doubt that their simple diet makes the savages swift runners. Still more certain is the fact that the savages consider it a great mark of beauty to have no hair, except on the head. Perhaps this is more a matter of custom than of beauty. If any hair grows, they take care to pull it out immediately. They are usually tawny. Thus, far from portraying them as hairy, savages should with more truth be shown naked except for a loincloth.
Many savage tribes are accustomed to tattoo the whole body. Others are satisfied with painting the face and body in different colors, first rubbing themselves with bear grease, and then daubing on black, red, blue, (page 139) and green. This is an ordinary decoration for them. Often, when they are at war, they use it, they say to frighten or intimidate their enemies. One might more readily believe it is to hide their own fear, for they are probably not immune to it. They also paint prisoners black when they intend to kill them, as well as painting themselves black when they return from war after losing some of their men.
Their method of tattooing is to trace the figure or design they wish to make on the skin stretched taut. When a man wants to have his whole body tattooed, he is stretched on a board, and the tattooer begins to mark out as much as can be done in one sitting. Next, he pricks him with little needles, arranged in a row and fastened firmly between two thin pieces of wood. This instrument as six to twelve needles which are carefully arranged to stick out at most only two or three lignes. He dips the points of these needles in the color desired, which is prepared either from alder charcoal or gunpowder; from red earth or vermilion; or blue, green, and the like; all bright colors. They are mixed with water or oil, after first having been well ground up.
When the needles are wet with the dye, the marks or patterns are pricked back and forth, taking care to dip the needles frequently in the color used for the tattooing. As blood must flow from the part thus cut by the tattooer's stroke, a swelling follows, forming a scab which falls off after a few days. Then, the wound is healed, and the tattooing or pattern stands out clearly. The healing takes a shorter or longer time, depending on the amount of tattooing done. It is very curious to see a man tattooed in this way, especially when the entire body is tattooed in colors. I have seen an officer who had been tattooed in this manner. He spoke several savage languages. They thought well of him, and often used him as an interpreter.
Most of the Indians split the ends of their ears from top to bottom, without cutting the edge which holds them together. They bend a long flat lead strip through and around the length of the slit. The weight of the lead naturally stretches the flesh. When it is healed, they remove the lead and substitute brass wire twisted like a corkscrew, and bent into a half circle as large as the opening. This amounts sometimes to five or six inches. When the man walks, this flaps and looks like a pump going up and down. Often, the weight of this insert pulls the upper part of the ear loose, and when this happens, they let the piece dangle, which looks horrible. But whether left hanging or not, the savages tie the two ears together behind the head, when they go to war or go hunting, so (page 140) they will not be hindered in running. It is only when they dress up that they let their ears hang. Then they put feathers and pieces of fur dyed various colors into the wire. This makes a plume on each side of the head.
The women are unlike the men, in the first place, by being very proud of their hair. They keep it long, full, and shy; taking care to rub it frequently with bear grease which thickens it, and covering it with powder made of rotten wood. They make it as large as one's fist, then wrap it with eel or snake skin. This pigtail is flattened on the back, and rounds a littler higher up. As their hair very often grows long, they turn it up halfway down, making the pigtail thicker, and as large at the bottom as at the top. In the second place, they, as a rule, do not make slits in their ears, but often pierce several hole in them for jewelry, whenever they can get it form, the men. This is easy enough for them when they inspire love, for they always take advantage of it.
THEIR CHARACTER
The character of these peoples is a peculiar mixture of simplicity and trickery, nobility and meanness, vanity and politeness, good nature and treachery, valor and cowardice, and humanity and barbarity.
A savage is ferocious. In his fury he breaks the laws of nature. When he feels he has been injured, he is capable of going three hundred leagues or more to surprise his enemy, and satisfy his revenge with blood.
As to their vices, the most common are mistreatment of women and indulgence in liquor, which has been mentioned before.
Usually the savages are properly obedient to the old men, chiefs, and war leaders.
Perhaps no nation in the world scorns women more than these savages usually do. The bitterest insult that can be offered a savage is to call him a woman. They are, however, usually very jealous of their wives.
THEIR SWIFTNESS IN RUNNING
They are generally fleet of foot. The Illinois and Missouris are reputed to have the best legs. It is claimed that they outrun bears, buffaloes, and even deer. I cannot verify this statement; but I have seen a footrace on the Ohio shore near Fort Duquesne, where several runners raced with some Illinois and Missouris, and these latter were easy winners. It is said- it may be a mere story- that an Illinois once was seen driving a deer before him and pursuing him all day long. He guided it with a switch as far as his village, where it was captured and killed.
THEIR WAY OF LIVING
They live in separate households. The woman always does the cooking, the main thing being to cook maize or grain and fresh or smoked meat from the hunt. Sometimes, the maize is cooked alone after it has been well pounded, and makes a pudding which is called sagamite. The women also soak this grain in lye, by boiling it with ashes in a kettle of water. Then, they take it out, wash it thoroughly, and dry it in the sun. By this time, it is whiter and more tender, having lost the yellow skin when it was soaked. Again the women make the earthen jars or bowls, and the wooden spoons they call "micouens." The latter are shaped like a soup spoon, but even larger, and with a short curved handle that can be hooked onto things. The spoon bowl and handle are made of one piece of wood; the handle is attached to the edge of the middle of the oval bowl.
As the savages are abstemious enough to know the value of fasting, they eat only one meal a day, of the sort just described. They, however, make up for this very frequently, either when the corn is young and tender with milky ears which they eat just as it is; when the wild fruits are ripe; or when they go hunting. Very often, in this last case, they take a piece of the slain animal, and stick it on a spit driven in the ground before a fire built with poles above it to smoke or cure the game. When the piece of meat is cooked on one side, they turn it around and eat the roasted side while the other is still cooking. This is called an "appola."
THEIR CLOTHING
The older custom, which still exists among the remoter savage tribes, is to wear the skins of the wild beasts they have killed. These skins are thoroughly scraped and rubbed with the animals' brains and fat, together with rotten wood made into powder. Then the skin becomes soft and pliable, and they use it for clothing and bedding.
The tribes in contact with Europeans, selling furs to them, gladly wear shirts, woolen cloaks, loin cloths and leggings. They get all these in exchange for their furs, or are given them when they are hired to fight. On their feet they wear a covering made of deerskin, scraped, rubbed, and smoked, which by this process, becomes as supple as tanned sheepskin. The women prepare the skin, and make the shoes for the men and for themselves. These shoes, which the savages call "mockassins," are gathered at the toes and are sewn above and behind with a raised flap on either side. This is turned down over the cord below the ankles which ties on the shoes. Often these folded edges, as well as the front and back of the (page 142) shoes, are decorated with ribbon or dyed porcupine quills of various colors, with red predominating. Sometimes, they add some glass beads and tiny copper bells, which are either round or long and trumpet-shaped.
The loincloth is made of deerskin or of cloth obtained from Europeans. It is a quarter or third of cloth that the men wind between their legs. This piece of cloth is held in place around the hips with a cord. The two ends of the loincloth are folded over in front and in back, with the end in front longer than the one in the back.
The women dress like the men, save for their head dress, which was explained before when I told of the men's physique, except that they wear a skirt of deerskin or cloth instead of a loincloth. This goes around the body, and is folded double over a belt or cord around the hips. This skirt, called a "Machicote," reaches only to the knees, and often has ribbons for decoration or ornament around the bottom, as well as porcupine quills and little bells. The women also wear bracelets and collars of porcelain beads around their necks and arms. To add a finishing touch, they paint their faces with red vermilion which they buy from the Europeans.
THEIR MARRIAGES
Polygamy is established in several savage tribes. Among the Algonquins, it is common enough to marry all the sisters in a family; a custom based on the notion that sisters get along better with each other than with strangers, and in this case they are all on the same footing. Among the true Algonquins, there are two classes of wives. The second class are the servants of the others. Some of the savages have wives at every place they stay when they are hunting. Among the Iroquois in general, there is even greater confusion because of polyandry.
In some tribes, the men are very scrupulous in regard to the degree of relationship and its bearing on marriage. One must not marry a relative; but if a wife dies first, her husband must marry her sister, or if she has no sister, must marry a woman selected by the family of the deceased. A wife, for her part, is obliged to do the same thing as far as her husband's brothers or relatives are concerned, if she has no children and is still young enough to have any. A husband who refuses to marry the sister or relatives of his widow lays himself open to all sorts of insults from the woman he has rejected, and must suffer in silence. If there is no left, a widow is allowed to seek elsewhere, but presents must be given to her, as witness of her good conduct during her first marriage.
Among all the savage nations, there are certain families recognized who can marry only among themselves. There are agreements to stay together as long as they are happy, and to separate when they tire of one another. There are others, in which a husband who leaves his wife without good cause must expect retaliation from the wife's family, and a woman who leaves her husband without being compelled by his mistreatment will have a bad time of it.
Among the Miamis, the husband has a right to cut off the nose of a wife who runs away. Among the Iroquois, Hurons, and others, they may separate by mutual consent and, sometimes, two friends will exchange wives to increase their happiness.
Mutual jealousy most commonly disturbs the peace of the family. The Iroquois are excessively jealous. When a woman discovers that her husband loves another, her rival had better beware; especially as the faithless husband dare not defend her in any way, without dishonor. It is the same among the Loups, Shawnees, and others.
Marriages are usually arranged by the parents. Those made through libertinism must be excepted. The parties concerned do not appear; yet, final arrangements are only made with their consent.
Among some tribes, the girls are not urged to marry, for they are permitted as many trial marriages as they wish.
The prospective bridegroom always gives the wedding presents; such as the halter, the kettle, and a fire leg. The halter means that the wife must carry the burdens; the kettle, that she will do the cooking and the log, that she will provide not only wood, but everything else necessary for the household. Whatever her duties may be, the new husband also has his duties; such as hunting, fishing, and war. He must also build a cabin, if he has none, and make a mat for his wife to sleep on. He must keep the cabin where they are living repaired.
The wife, for her part, gives her husband only a bag of fragrant red leaves, which she gathers in the woods and dries out thoroughly. This is for her husband to smoke. Usually, these red leaves are mixed with tobacco, and make it very sweet. It needs to be sweet, for the savages almost always have pipes in their mouths. They call this mixture "petun" or "sumack."
In some other villages, the bridegroom need only go and sit down in the cabin beside the girl he wants for his wife. If she permits it, she keeps her seat. Then, he throws her bits of wood he has been busy cutting, that are a little thicker and longer than matches. If the woman accepts them, the marriage is complete. The man goes out at once into the woods, and his wife follows.
The women cultivate the ground and do the sowing and harvesting. The crops usually consist of maize, beans, pumpkins, and watermelons. Sometimes, the men help with the harvest, which ends in a festival lasting far into the night.
The men glory in their idleness, save for hunting, fishing, and war. Yet, the women often help them in these three tasks; first by carrying the game, which is a very common practice, and by mending their shoes, which is always necessary.
The women bear children, usually unattended and without pain but always away from their cabins, in little shelters built for this purpose forty or fifty days previously in the woods, or sometimes in their fields. If it happens- it rarely does- that a woman has a delayed labor, the young people are called, and they come and make loud yells near her, when she least expects it. This gives her a sudden shock which often causes delivery.
THEIR CHILDREN
These mothers nurse their own children, sometimes two at a time. They care for them and carry them on their backs with a small board twenty-five or thirty inches long, bent at the upper end like the traines I have described. On it, a pad of cotton is prepared, and the baby lies there on his back with the pad folded over him. Then, this is fastened with straps, and carried with the child's head upright under the plank's curved end. If it is a boy, the mother take care to fix a small piece of bark like a gutter to catch the urine and carry it off, which keeps him from wetting himself. Otherwise, the child is changed whenever necessary.
When it leaves the cradle, the child is not interfered with in any way. He is given complete liberty to roll about on his feet and hands, in the woods, in the snow, and even in the water, when he is strong enough. He learns to swim like a fish. All this helps a great deal in making these children strong, supple, and agile. Ordinarily, when they are three or four years old, their mothers leave them to themselves; not through harsh- (page 145) ness or indifference, but because they believe nature must be let alone and unhampered.
Bows and arrows are put in the hands of children at an early age, and they become expert in their use in a very short time. They are made to fight each other, and, sometimes, one would be killed, if care were not taken to separate them. The losers are so ashamed, that they do not rest until they have revenge. For this reason, they seem born with a desire for glory.
The only education children receive is by hearing their mother and father tell the brave deeds of their ancestors and their tribe. They become enthusiastic over these stories, and long to grow up and imitate what they have been taught to admire. Kindness is used in correcting them, never threats. If a girl behaves badly, and her mother is sensitive about honor, the mother weeps. If her daughter asks the reason, she then says only, "You are dishonoring me." This answer is often sufficient for a girl who has any feeling of shame, though this situation is rare.
The giving of a name ends the period of early infancy. This ceremony is carried out with a feast attended only by persons of the same sex as the child that is to be named. He is held on his mother's knee, and given the name of a dead warrior in his family.
Children are usually thought of as belonging more to the mother than to the father. Since they are brought up with this notion, they respect their father only as the master of the cabin.
THEIR HOMES AND COUNCILS
A village has no regular plan. It is a group of cabins of various shapes and sizes. Some are as long as a shed. They all are built and covered with tree bark, with the exception of a strip in the roof about two feet long, to let out the smoke from a fire of the same size. On each side of a cabin, there are beds made of bark spread on sticks and raised seven or eight inches above the ground. The exterior of these cabins is sometimes covered with a mixture of earth and brush to keep out the wind. The doors are likewise of bark hung from the top like blinds, or fastened on one side with wooden withes, making a swinging door.
In general, savages fortify better than they house themselves. Villages may be seen stockaded like redoubts, making provision for water and stones. The piles and the stones used to build them have battlements able to withstand a siege. But they must live near their enemies and fear being surprised, if they entrench themselves in this manner.
Each village has its own chief. His only powers are to assemble the young men when war is to be made, and to reply to an invitation for an alliance. In each village, there is also a sorcerer or wizard. As savages are superstitious, they place great trust in their wizards and look upon them s oracles.
There is only one wizard to a village, usually an old man. He gets ready for his duties by steam baths. They make a little cabin of tree branches stuck in a circle on the ground, bending the upper ends over and across one another. It looks like a huge beehive. They cover it with wild animal skins or wool blankets, and then put a red hot stone inside. The wizard goes inside with some water, which he pours on the stone. This causes a dense steam, which makes him perspire. When he has perspired a great deal and feels weak, he comes out and jumps into the water to wash himself. Then, he comes back to deliver his prophecy, which tells the warriors who have consulted him, if they will be successful or be defeated in war; if they will lose any men; if they will take prisoners and scalps; and finally tells each one exactly how far he must travel.
They undertake no war and make no treaty without first holding council among themselves. This council decides whether war is to be undertaken, and, in that case, the war chiefs urge the young men to take up the hatchet against the common enemy, whom they try to surprise.
Regarding these councils, Dr. Franklin has observed that, as the people do not know how to write, the women learn by heart the discussion carried on. He says that women as well as children attended these councils. I am not completely in accord with that except for the Iroquois, whom Dr. Franklin had perhaps seen in council because they are nearest to Virginia and Pennsylvania. I have never seen a village council of those tribes, but I have seen them in council with the French. Then the women did not attend. The tribes in the north, west, and south are not accustomed to introduce women into their councils in any way. If that were true, it would be inconsistent with the scorn they have for women. I, nevertheless, quote from his statement.
"The savages," he says, " are accustomed to keep much order and decency in their assemblies, since they have frequent occasion for holding public councils. The old men sit in the front row, the warriors in the second row, and the women and children in the last. The women's task is to note with care what is done in the councils, engraving it on their memory, and teaching it to their children to be handed down as tradition, (page 147) for these people have no writing. They are the council registers, and keep the remembrance of treaties made a hundred years ago. When we compare what they say with our written records, we always find them exact."
THEIR WEAPONS
Originally, the only weapons that the savages had, were the bow and arrow, with a sort of spear having a point of bone fashioned in various ways, and a two-foot club made of very hard wood with a rounded head which had one cutting edge. When they were at war, attacking the enemy and the enemy's stronghold, they protected themselves with reed mats, or mats made of thin pliable strips of green wood, wrapping these around their bodies to shield them from the blows they received. The savages of the far north still use these weapons, and have shields made of buffalo skin or bear skin stretched around a hoop. These protect them from arrows.
Since the greater part of these tribes have become acquainted and familiar with Europeans, they have grown accustomed to firearms. They use them in preference to their own arrows.
The Dutch brought the first supply of firearms, small hatchets, and knives. The first to get them were the Iroquois. The French followed the Dutch and the English in doing this. These weapons became a necessity, which perhaps may be regretted. For many of these tribes now use only firearms, as well as the small hatchets called tomahawks, and knives for which they have many uses, especially for scalping. As a result, the arrow is used only by children to develop their skill. Although the savages use firearms, they are very particular when they select these weapons. They try several to find a good one, especially if they are buying them.
When savages go to war, they are armed with guns, tomahawks, and knives. They usually have three knives; one hung around the neck, one in the belt, and one fastened in the garter on the outside of the leg. Canadians arm themselves in the same way, as a precaution or safeguard.
THEIR GAMES
The dish game is simple. It is played with peas in a wooden dish or bowl. Several peas are made to jump in the air without letting them fall on the ground. If they do fall, the player loses the game, and his opponent takes whatever stake there is.
The game of knucklebones is for two persons only. Each one has six or eight knucklebones, with six unequal sides. The two larger sides of these are painted; one black, and the other yellowish white. The dish in (page 148) which they are placed is spun around, and then struck on the table to make the pieces jump. If all the knucklebones that fall show the same color, the player wins five points. The game is for forty. The winner keeps on playing and when he loses, gives way to another player.
The game of straws is played with little pieces of grass, the size of wheat straw, two or three inches long. A bundle of two hundred and one straws is made. They are shuffled well and then dropped. Next, they are separated with a pointed piece of bone into piles of ten. Each player takes his at random and the one getting a pile with eleven wins a point. The game is for sixty or eighty points. Any number of persons, u to twenty, may play it.
The game of lacrosse is played with a bat and a ball. Two posts are set up for the bounds, the distance between them depending on the number of players. For example, if there are sixty or eighty platters, they will be nearly half a league apart. The players are divided into two teams, and each has a post. The ball is hit to the opposite side, which bats it back without letting it fall to the ground or touching it with the hand. If it does fall to the ground, or is touched by a hand, that side will lose the game. Savages are so skillful in batting the ball, that games sometimes last several consecutive days.
THEIR FUNERALS, TOMBS, AND MOURNING
Savages are very reverent toward the dead. Mothers have been known to draw milk from their breasts and scatter it over the tombs of their children. This is, however, not usual. If a village where there are dead bodies takes fire, they are first to be taken to safety. Savages strip themselves of their most precious possessions to adorn the dead. The dead man is dressed in his best clothes, his face is painted various colors, and beside him are placed his weapons, powder, shot, a hatchet, a knife, and all his belongings. He is thus laid in his grave, with food, a kettle, tobacco, and his pie; everything, as they say, to make the great voyage and hunt in the land of spirits. When everything is in place, the body is so covered that the earth does not touch it. It is wrapped in skins that are adorned with feathers. The earth is raised like a pyramid, and sometimes a post is placed over it, which sets forth his brave deeds- if it is a warriors' grave- and the esteem men had for him. Some tribes have the custom of carrying food every morning to the dead. Dogs and other beasts take advantage of this. But the savages are persuaded that the souls of the departed come and take this food.
After the interment, presents are given to the family of the deceased. This is called "attending the dead." These presents are given in the name of the village, and sometimes in the name of the tribe when he was a noted chief or a great warrior. But before that, the family of the deceased gives a feast in his name, then has games, jousts, and races. The family of the dead man does not participate.
For mourning, they have all their hair cut off, blacken their faces, and wrap their bodies in blankets, without speaking or making any visits, and thus deprive themselves of all pleasure for about six moons. Men never weep because, according to savages, tears are unworthy of men. But women weep for their husbands and children for a long time, three times a day; morning, noon, and sunset. The chiefs mourn for only six moons.
THEIR WAY OF NAMING THE MONTHS AND MOONS
Savages divide the year into twelve moons. When there are thirteen moons, the last one is called the lost moon. Each moon gets its name from the weather. For example, March, considered the first month of the year, begins with the first new moon after the spring equinox, and is called the month of worms, because grubs then come out from their winter retreat. April is the sower's moon; May the flower moon; June the warm moon; July the deer moon; August the sturgeon moon; September the wheat moon; October the travelers' moon; November the beaver moon; December the hunting moon; January the cold moon; and February the snow moon.
In this way, the names these tribes give their moons or months are taken from nature itself. This is not surprising, as physical phenomena must always have been the first thing to impress these peoples from the moment when they first noticed natural occurrences. If the savages' division of the year is neither very exact nor in accord with astronomical observations, one must admit, however, that the names given by them to each part of their division are much wiser and more reasonable than the names adopted by Europeans.
THE FOUR MOTHER TONGUES OF THE INDIAN TRIBES
The Sioux, Algonquin, Huron, and Iroquois languages are the four mother tongues of the savage tribes. The Sioux language is spoken northwest of the Mississippi. Algonquin and Huron in central Canada still are (page 150) shared by most of the northern tribes. Whoever knows these two languages can make himself understood among many tribes. Iroquois, which is spoken in southern Canada, is also understood by many northern tribes.
THEIR DIVINITIES
Each savage tribe, even each village, has its own tutelary god, called Okis and Manitou. They are the symbols which represent the guardian spirit of each one. Most savages wear their symbols around their necks, and, if they travel on the water, put them in the fore part of their canoes as a safeguard against accidents.
Okis and Manitous are only the forerunners of the Great Spirit, which is God. To make them favorable, savages give them offerings, throwing into a lake or river tobacco and, sometimes, birds which they have strangled.
Algonquins and Hurons call the chief Spirit the Great Hare. Other tribes call him Michabou, and still others, Attahourans and Matromec. The Hurons call him Areskoui. The Iroquois named him Agreskoui, while others give him the name of Nossou and Sakeschat. All these names mean Sovereign Master, the Great Spirit of God, God of War,- in short, a beneficent God, more perfect than all others.
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